Chemical Structures Starting with the Letter E

The Hidden And Gender Stereotypes Essay - 1016 Words

THE HIDDEN GENDER STEREOTYPES A gender stereotype is a generalized view or perception about characteristics that are or should be possessed by, or the roles that are or should be performed by women and men. A gender stereotype is harmful and can lessen women when it limits their capacity to develop their personal abilities, chase their professional careers and make choices about their lives and life plans. The obvious biological form of men and women arise the challenge of the hidden language metaphors in science. While women have begun to earn acceptance in the workforce in the past decades, men have not yet seen societal acceptance in politics, let alone as caregivers and homemakers. Gender roles exist exclusively because society as a whole chooses to accept them, but they are supported by the media. The obvious biological form of men and women arise the challenge of the hidden language metaphors in science. Men and women contain valuable substances for the reproductive system such as the sperm and egg. Both take part in a serious result of new life. Language however be littles the worth of, of course women, such as the egg is large and â€Å"passive†, it does not move like sperm, sperm is on the other hand â€Å"active† and is able to deliver their genes to the egg. (Martin, 2013, p.119). But still, the roles of the reproductive organs have the stereotype to their names; the egg and how feminine it is, and the sperm to how masculine it is. Menstrual cycle described as losing,Show MoreRelatedThe Hidden Gender Stereotypes in the Animations the Little Mermaid and Tangled7533 Words   |  31 PagesThe Hidden Gender Stereotypes in the Animations The Little Mermaid and Tangled Erlina EKAWATI ABSTRACT After the success of the feminist movement in the early 1960s, gender stereotypes are considered as not a big issue anymore. Many people tried to break gender stereotypes especially in mass media. 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AsRead MoreGender Inequality And Gender Equality1725 Words   |  7 Pagesdifferent shades of green, with copious amounts of peace and tranquility. Gender equality, however, is something that seems to be left out of the typical picture of the ‘perfect society’. It is ironic that in the nation where ‘all men are created equal’, there are so many restricting gender roles woven intricately into society, and from those restrictions come discriminations based solely on the gender of another human being. Gender roles hav e been suffocating seven billion people since the beginningsRead MoreSex, Gender And Sexuality966 Words   |  4 PagesThe chapter includes definitions about sex, gender and sexuality. Additionally, it describes a process of gender socialization, gender stratification, and supports these processes by social theories. Each of the provided videos and the article relates to this chapter in many ways. 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The nursery in the hospital assigns either a blue name plate for a boy or a pink name plate for a girl. These roles are continuously reinforced by family. Children learn at an early age that boys and girls are different. Children observe gender roles and in many cases these roles are eventually accepted as an unquestionable truth. This creates gender stereotyping which is defined by The OfficeRead MoreEssay on Gender Stereotype: Gender in The Toy Store1417 Words   |  6 Pagesa toy that is not marketed explicitly or subtly by gender. If toys were marketed only according to ethnic and racial stereotypes, many individuals would be infuriated. However, we come across toy departments that are highly, as well as strictly segregated—not by race, but by gender. In order to fully comprehend the how gender stereotypes perpetuate children’s toys, one must understand gender socialization. According to Santrock, the term gender refers to the, â€Å"characteristics of people as malesRead MoreThe Egg And The Sperm By Emily Martin910 Words   |  4 Pagesthroughout the conversation of language in science indiscreetly displays gender bias towards women, aiding the theories that Martin addresses in her article. 2. Introduction paragraph: †¢ Introduce, Emily Martin’s article The Egg and the Sperm. Martin’s main goal is to shine a light on gender stereotypes hidden in the language of biology (Martin 1). Explain the gender roles in scientific language. Three main points of the article, Gender bias is seen in an early age in science textbooks, science demonstrates

Credit and Lending Management for Economics -myassignmenthelp

Question: Discuss about theCredit and Lending Management for Economics. Answer: Introduction Loaning is one of the very important roles of any financial organization. If not controlled properly, it can result to credit quality issues, frightening the survival of the monetary institution. To control the lending role properly and alleviate credit quality issues, bank management staff should be sufficiently trained lending evaluation techniques. Loan agreements are of different kinds and with diverse terms, oscillating from basic promissory, between associates and family affiliates to more intricate loans like mortgage, payday and student loans. This paper provides an outline of some of the key issues likely to come up as a result of Stockland company decision in relation to the present day retirement borrowing background, and the challenges likely to face key stakeholder in dealing with the financial needs and preferences of this company. Security in business Security is a fungible, open financial tool that holds some type of financial value. It denotes an ownership status in a publicly operated corporation, a creditor correlation with a corporation (signified by possessing an entity's pledge), or rights to ownership as denoted by an option(Degryse, et al., 2012). The role of securities The entity that makes the securities available to be purchased is known as the backer, and those that get them are, obviously, speculators(Sathye, et al., 2014). By and large, securities speak to a venture and a method by which districts, companies and other business endeavors can raise new capital. Companies can create a considerable measure of cash when they open up to the world, offering stock in a first sale of stock, for instance. City, state or area governments can raise stores for a specific task by coasting a city bond issue(Degryse, et al., 2012). Contingent upon a foundation's market request or valuing structure, raising capital through securities can be a favored contrasting option to financing through a bank credit. Then again, buying securities with obtained cash, a demonstration known as purchasing on an edge, is a mainstream venture strategy(Huppi Feder, 2011). Fundamentally, an organization may convey property rights, as money or different securities, either at initiation or in default, to pay its obligation or other commitment to another substance. These guarantee game plans have been developing generally, particularly among institutional financial specialists. Credit issues considered in any loan proposal Without considering the place to get a loan, be it a bank, or another company a close relative - forthcoming loan personnel will audit your trustworthiness(Degryse, et al., 2012). A total and altogether recorded credit demand will enable the creditor to comprehend you and your organization. The "5 C's" are the crucial parts of credit worth examination. Key credit issues considered in regard to Stockland decision The Capacityof Stockland resources To repay is the most demanding of the 5 variables considered before being given the loan, it is the vital wellspring of repayment. The lender will need understand precisely how Stockland Company will expect to repay the credit(Berger Udell, 2014). The bank will consider the general income from Stockland Company, the scheduling of the payment, and the possibility of a fruitful repayment out of the credit. Additionally, the bank will also demand to know how Stockland Company has been paying its creditors before. Potential financial institutions likewise will also need to focus on other Stockland company conceivable means of repayment(Huppi Feder, 2011). The Companys Capital Alludes to the cash Stockland Company has put into the business inform of assets as a sign of how much the loaning foundation has in danger should the business fall flat(Degryse, et al., 2012). Intrigued financial institutions will forestall that the company will have funded from its own particular resources and to have encompassed private budgetary hazard to stabilize the business before entreating that they discuss any funding. Stocklands Company Collateral Likewise alluded to guarantees, are extra sorts of security the Stockland Company can give to the loan specialist. Giving bank insurance will demonstrate a vow of an advantage possessed by the this company, for example, a land, to the lender with the understanding that it will be the repayment source in the event that the credit isn't repaid(Huppi Feder, 2011). A certification, then again, is quite recently that another party signs an assurance report promising to repay the advance in the event that Stockland fails to repay. Stocklands proposed loan Conditions Depiction of the Stockland companys proposed purpose for the loan, Will the cash be used for working capital, extra gear or stock? The loan specialist will also consider the Companys locality monetary conditions and the overall atmosphere, both inside the Company and in different endeavors that could play a role in the organization's business operations(Berger Udell, 2014). Assuming the proposal loan amount to be $250 million Type o security Balance sheet value ($ million) Lending margin ($ million) Net realizable value ($ million) Companys Land 100 150 100 Company vehicles 200 50 120 Companys building 200 50 150 Total value of lending margin 500 250 370 Surplus security(unsecured) 0 Lending policies A Lending policy refers to the financial organizations statement of its values, standards, and procedures that its workers must follow in granting or declining a loan request These policies define which sector of the company or business will be ratified for loans and which will be evaded, and must be established on the country's pertinent laws and regulations(Degryse, et al., 2012) According to Westpacs lending policy an organization is allowed to use the value of any of its practices for establishment and expansion .it recognizes the value of cash circulation, goodwill and proficient standing as part of the lending benchmarks(Sathye, et al., 2014). Based on this policy, Stockland company decision to take a loan to finance a retirement is not in line with banks policy. Instead of taking a loan, the company should have used its available resources for this purpose. This will enable the company evade some of the disadvantages which comes as a result of acquiring loans e.g. interest rates. Works cited Berger Udell, 2014. Relationship lending and lines of credit in financial organizations. journal of economics, Volume 654, p. 43. Degryse, Van Cayseele, 2012. Relationship lending within the bank syste. journal of financial interpretation, Volume 32, p. 3445. Huppi Feder, 2011. Role of securities in credit corporatives in lending. journal of restrictive economics, Volume 34, p. 43. Sathye, Bartle Boffey, 2014. Credit analysis and lending management. journal of business economics, Volume 432, p. 23.

The Social Learning Theory Essay Example

The Social Learning Theory Essay Social Learning Theory has a rich historical background dating back to late 1800s. In the modern times, Albert Bandura has made enormous contributions in explaining the social context in our learning process. Beginning with his social learning theory in 1977 and refining it to introduce the element of cognition in 1986, Bandura has had a major influence on learning theories. Not stopping there, Bandura then applied his theory to everything from psychotherapy to television violence and to the impact of the mass media. The range of applications of the theory is a reflection of how central it is to the human experience and learning of new behavior. Social learning theory focuses on how we learn, how we think and how the combination of these and the environment impacts on behavior. This has also resulted in the theory being applied to many other areas and merging into various other ideas on the human experience.Theoretical and Therapeutic Aspects of Social Learning TheoryHumans are alway s in the process of learning. Human mind in the early stages of development is just like a blank paper. It registers what it sees, listens, or experiences. It not only gains knowledge but also learns and adapts different patterns of behavior. Besides the formal sources of learning, environment plays a major role and ironically it had been ignored for a long time. From Freud (1856-1939) onwards, various psychologists have identified childhood experiences as a leading cause to deviant behavior. John Bowlby (1907-1990) has argued that the failure of the mother to satisfy her child’s â€Å"basic human need† for emotional security can result in the production of a psychopathic personality. These sociological perspectives of human learning propose that we learn to be deviant or conform to normalcy through the family, mass media, and school, which all form part of the environment. Of all the sociologists and psychologists, Albert Bandura has contributed a great deal towards o ur awareness about leaning within a social context. Bandura not only processed the ingredients of learning theory conceived by previous theorists but also added the element of cognition to the social learning theory. Cognition implied that a person does not have to physically experience something to learn. The learning can also be achieved by changing an individual’s perception. Mass media came under tight scrutiny with the Bandura’s experiments and findings in this regard. Study of social learning theory enables us to be cognizant of the impact of environment on our learning and on the development of our next generations. This paper has been designed to analyze the theoretical and therapeutic aspects of social learning theory. The paper throws some light on the historical background followed by the explanation and general principles of social learning theory. After discussing the process of learning in the social context, the paper will discuss the application of soci al learning theory in childhood and in the field of criminology.Historical Perspective of Social Learning TheorySocial Learning Theory has a rich historical background dating back to late 1800s. The first theory to originate was in 1890 and was termed as ‘The Social Self’ by William James who laid foundation for the study of person and environment interaction. In the early 1900s, Alfred Adler proposed that behavior is purposeful and motivated by pursuit of goals. He further theorized that individual perception and attitude towards social environment significantly influences behavior. According to Adler, a person’s thoughts, feelings and behavior are transactions with one’s physical and social environment. Tolman in 1930 promoted the idea that cognitions are the driving force behind behavior. It was in 1941 that the social leaning theory was officially launched by Miller and Dollard with the publication of their work ‘Social Learning and Imitation.â⠂¬â„¢ Their work augmented the previous ideas that human behaviors are reinforced through environment. Thereafter, many theorists like Watson, Julian Rotter, Rober Sears, Walter Mischel and Ronald Akers expanded the work of Miller and Dollard. It was however Albert Bandura who added a cognitive component to the Social Learning Theory by stating that the behavioral change is not related to direct enforcement, but related to the cognitive processes associated with the experience.Explanation of Social Learning TheoryThe chief proposition of the social learning theory is that the production of both conforming and deviant behavior is the out come of the same learning process in a context of social structure, interaction, and situation. In simple words, whatever we learn is basically the observation and modeling of behavior, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others. The theory offers an explanation of the acquisition, maintenance, and change in behavior that embraces social, nonsocial , and cultural factors operating both to motivate and control deviant behavior and both to promote and undermine conformity (Seamon Kenrick, 1994).Social learning theory initially emerged as a subset of the behavioral approach.   This approach remained focused on observable behaviors, but Bandura added a cognitive component to this theory. It considers that people learn from one another, including such concepts as observational learning, imitation, and modeling. In 1961 a paper was published by Bandura, Ross, and Ross describing an experiment into how children learn by observation. The experiment involved preschool children watching an adult be violent toward a large inflated clown doll.   When the children were left alone with the doll, many were observed copying the actions of the adults and being violent toward the doll. Another group of children saw the adults acting aggressively but also saw the adults punished for their actions. This group of children was less likely to c opy the actions of the adults. Later, these children were offered rewards if they copied the aggressive actions of the adults. The majority of the children offered rewards did copy the actions of the aggressive adults despite the punishments they had observed (Bandura, 1977).The observations of this experiment led to various components of Bandura’s social learning theory.   Firstly, it showed that children learn not just by their own behaviors, but also by observing the behaviors of others.   Secondly, it showed that the learning process was not just one of copying. If this was the case, the children would have been violent toward the doll whether or not they observed the adult being punished. This showed that both actions and the observed results of those actions determine what is learned, with this process requiring cognitive processes. Finally, it showed that other factors were also important in determining the resulting behavior. When children observed punishment, the y did not act violently. However, when they were provided with rewards, they did. This showed that other factors have impact on the cognitive processing that occurs. These aspects are all present in the social cognitive theory described by Bandura.Social learning theory is also important in regards to antisocial behaviors.   One area that has received a lot of attention recently is the issue of violence in society. As noted earlier, a major component of social learning/cognitive theory is that individuals learn by observing others. In the modern world, this does not only mean observing actual events. Instead, it also means observing films, music videos, and television programs. With these as a major influence, individuals learn their behaviors from what is observed from media. A detailed discussion on this aspect will be made in the application segment of this paper.General Principles of Social Learning TheoryHuman development is a complex process which involves an intricate relat ionship of a person with others, the persons behavior, and the environment. The interaction between these elements is generally referred to as the reciprocal determinism. The social learning theory emphasizes that a persons cognitive abilities, environment, physical characteristics, personality, beliefs and attitudes influence a person’s behavior through a process of continuous learning (Bandura, 2001). This interaction is however reciprocal; not only a person’s behavior is affected by all these elements but a persons behavior can also affect his/her feelings about these elements. As it is a common perception that the upcoming generation is always wiser than the former one, the reason is simple. The learning environment available today was not there in older times. The major environmental learning resources in the form of television, computers, and print media are providing the amount of information to the young minds which was unimaginable in the past. These environme ntal resources on one hand are contributing heavily to the learning of children and on the other hand are also shaping their behavior. This discussion leads us to the general principles of social learning theory which are derived from the same presumptions. The general principles of social learning theory are summarized below:People learn the most from their environment which is generally based on observing the behavior of others and the outcomes of those behaviors.Learning can take place even without reflecting a change in the behavior. Behaviorists generally argue that a permanent change in the behavior will represent the acquiring of new knowledge but the social learning theorists believe otherwise. The social learning theory rests on the principle that learning can even be possible without a considerable or a permanent change in the behavior. People can learn through observation alone, their learning may not necessarily be shown in their performance.Major contribution of Bandura towards the social learning theory is adding the principle of cognition. Cognition plays a vital role in learning. Perception of a person can be modified even without any interaction with others. Awareness and expectations of future reinforcements or punishments can have a major effect on the behaviors that people exhibit.The Process of Social LearningThe social learning theory encompasses of four processes that form the basis of learning. These processes are Attention, Retention, Motivation, and Motor Reproduction. Observational learning can not commence without acquiring attention of the learner. In our daily lives, we walk down the streets but are seldom distracted unless something catches our attention. A fight going on at some place, a scene of an accident or a distinctive billboard advertisement will force us unwittingly to stop and observe. The same human instinct is exploited by the mass media as well. A sensational news item or new themes in the commercials are all meant t o get our attention. In nut shell, the first step in the process of learning is to attract the attention of the learner. Another important aspect of ‘attention’ is that besides being unique and sensational, the theme has to be appealing since different people are attracted by different things. Most people would not stop to see a fight going on, but few will do that. Similarly, most people will be attracted to a unique advertisement, but few people will not be impressed.The second component of the process of learning is ‘Retention.’ In order to reproduce the modeled behavior, the individuals must code the information into their long-term memory. Unless a modeled behavior is registered in the memory, the process of learning does not proceed further. There may be numerous behaviors we observe each day but we do not put them in our memory for two reasons. Either the behaviors we observed did not attract out attention or we too complex/verbose to be understood a nd retained in the memory.   For example, a verbal description of a person performing an act by somebody may not get registered in our minds as against if we had observed the same ourselves. The process of retention is important not only for storing information in our mind but a good retention helps in accurate retrieval of the same as well. The process of retention is not related to our liking or disliking. If a certain incident or a modeled behavior has attracted our attention, it may get registered in our minds even if we did not like it.The third and fourth components of the process of learning are closely knitted. Motor Reproduction involves the physical reproduction of the observed activity through physical capability, self-observation and feedback. The process of learning however still takes place even if we are capable of reproducing the learnt behavior but decline to adopt it. This is the essence of social learning theory. We, in fact do not only learn to follow the suit for a reward but also learn to avoid certain kinds of modeled behavior for the fear of consequences. This process of learning is called motivation or reinforcements. The reinforcements comprises of external, vicarious and/or self-reinforced motivation. In this process, the observer expects to receive positive reinforcements for the modeled behavior. Differential reinforcement refers to the balance of anticipated or actual rewards and punishments that follow or are consequences of behavior. The reproduction of modeled behavior will therefore depend upon the level of motivation which is generated by either the urge for reward or the fear of punishment, forcing us to act accordingly. Another important aspect of motor reproduction is that the balance of reinforcement may motivate a person to reproduce learnt deviant behaviors even in the face of their own definitions unfavorable to those acts. Reproduction of deviant behavior is however more likely when both the reinforcement balance an d the balance of one’s own definitions are in the same deviant direction (Simons et al, 2004).Application of Social Learning TheoryChildren who mimic various behaviors of their parents are engaged in social learning. One of the key principles of social learning theory is that individuals will be more likely to adopt modeled behavior if it is activity they value and if the model holds admired status. Major assumption of Banduras social learning theory is that we can learn by observing others. The most suited stage of human development for observational learning is the early childhood. Children are the finest observers of environment. They are easily attracted to every thing and they retain whatever they see. They do not require much of the motivation and hence tend to reproduce the modeled behaviors disregarding any consequences. Applicability of social learning theory on children therefore resulted in the idea of ‘prepared environment’ most suited to their learni ng needs.Bandura’s main emphasis has remained on the application of social learning theory on children. In this regard, Bandura’s apprehensions of the role of mass media are of prime importance. Bandura warned that children and adults acquire attitudes, emotional responses, and new styles of conduct through filmed and televised modeling (Bandura, 1989). A change in behavior and attitude is very obvious in children spending too much time in front of television screens. Not paying heed to elder’s instructions, replying in a rude manner, poor education results, and preferring an isolated life are few to name the symptoms of   a changing behavior pattern. Furthering the effects of mass media, children do not spend enough time on some healthier activity resulting into gaining weight. They are also attracted to unhealthier food by watching commercials during childrens programs. By watching violence, children learn that it is okay to use force to handle aggression an d settle disagreements (Paik ; Comstock, 1994).Application of social learning theory provides us enough evidence that media violence dictates children to behave aggressively toward others. They learn to use violence instead of self-control to take care of problems or conflicts. Violence in media may make children more accepting of real-world violence and less caring toward others. Children who see a lot of violence from movies, TV shows, or video games start seeing the real world as a cruel and scary place. Television also exposes children to adult behaviors, prematurely. Television programs often depict sexual activity as normal, fun, exciting, and without any risks. The children usually copy the same to feel more grown up. Casual but continuous dose of televised messaging can pollute young minds (Borgatta ; Montgomery, 2000). Children are exposed to messages that say drinking alcohol and smoking cigarettes or cigars are normal activities. Commercials would portray strong and sexy people indulging in such activities. They would never highlight side effects of these things. Beer and wine are some of the most advertised products on television. It is estimated that an average child sees more than 20,000 commercials each year. Constant dose of commercials can even cause changes in behavioral patterns of children. They can easily remember marketing slogans or catchy phrases and try to imitate them accordingly. An evidence of negative effects of violence on television was also provided through a series of experimental studies conducted under supervision of US Surgeon General in 1972. The experiments proved that children adopt violent behaviors in their plays if they are exposed to viewing violence on television (Borgatta ; Montgomery, 2000).The field of criminology is based on the major hypotheses of social learning theory. Sutherland, who is called as the father of American criminology was a strong proponent of the idea that the criminal behavior is learned in int eraction with others in a process of communication (Sutherland, 1947). On the similar lines, Albert Bandura promoted that aggression is learned through a process called behavior modeling (Bandura, 1977). Negating the old assumptions of biological and inheritance tendencies, Bandura emphasized that people learn aggressive responses from observing others, either personally or through the media and environment. His definition of motivation or reinforcements included a reduction of tension, gaining financial rewards, gaining the praise of others, and building self-esteem.The social learning theory explains deviancy by combining variables which encouraged delinquency with variables that discouraged delinquency. The theory declares that all behavior is learned in much the same way as other behaviors. The application of social learning theory in the field of criminology can not be narrowed down to one particular group of criminals. It can be applied to most criminals and crimes that produc e a gain which can be psychological in the form of positive attention from other group members, or physical/material. The social learning theory is however best applied to behavior within groups which offer reinforcement, such as gangs, peer groups, or social groups (Akers, 1998).In the field of criminology, the social learning theory has a major limitation too. It focuses solely on the interaction between the individual and the social group, and totally ignores the individual differences or social context. These individual differences may be biological, psychological, or the result of other factors, and may affect the interaction between the individual and the social group. The theory also ignores the inborn characteristics of individuals. Two individuals brought up in the same learning environment and having same social setting, may act differently in the same given situation. Various personality traits of criminals like guts (dare devils), impulsivity, lack of remorse, hyper-sexu ality, and inability to resist temptation are more of neurological impairment and genetic disorders. Total disregard of such forces in the social learning context makes it difficult for the social learning theorists to explain the process of learning deviant behavior.ConclusionSocial learning theory is a general theory of human behavior, which proposes that environment plays an important role in development of different behaviors in individuals. Various social scientists and particularly Bandura expanded its scope and applied it on children to explain as to how we learn from the modeled behavior. The theory helps us in understanding the negative impacts of mass media on children and adolescents who acquire attitudes, emotional responses, and new styles of conduct through filmed and televised modeling. The theory also explains the deviant behavior as the outcome of our interaction with others and our learning from the environment.

Religion and Justice essays

Religion and Justice essays Stanley Kurtz and Jonathan Rauch are two well-respected journalists. In 2001, they engaged in a series of debates, published on National Review Online, in regards to the issue of same-sex marriages. In his article, Point of No Return, Kurtz was opposed to allowing gay couples to marry because marriage domesticates men based on what he described as the underlying dynamic of male-female sexuality. Rauch, a homosexual man, wrote Whos More Worthy in support of gay marriage because marriage is indispensably about the commitment to care for another person. These men both agree that the solution to ending the national debate is an amendment to the constitution defining what marriage means. If you asked 100 Americans to define marriage, receiving 100 answers, many of these answers would be based on religious principles. We should not make an amendment to our constitution based on religious doctrine. This country was founded on the principle of religious tolerance. We have even judged other nations for using religion as a means to control its citizens. For example, when the Taliban ruled Afghanistan, based on their interpretation of the Koran, Americans declared they were a rogue regime, and we removed them from power. Therefore, we must define marriage without any religious influence, or we will be just as guilty of imposing religious beliefs on American society as the Taliban was in Afghanistan. So, what is marriage? Websters dictionary defines marriage as any close union. A pretty broad definition, it does not mention gender. We all probably agree marriage is a long-term, committed relationship between two people, vowing to love and care for each other. Marriage has been predominately male-female for centuries. Who decided marriage had to be male-female? An explanation often quotes God as that decision maker. If we take out God as the reason for this, another g...

The Analysis and Design of a New System essays

The Analysis and Design of a New System essays Enterprise: One of the three sub-businesses or bases of Innovative Plastics, divided into three countries, France, England and Spain. Technical issues: Issues/problems with the hardware side of Innovative Plastics People issues: Issues with employees of the company (ethical and lawful issues) Innovative Plastics co-operative is a business with enterprises in England, France and Spain. The aim of this report id to develop a new computer system to integrate into the company, supporting all areas of their business activities. Innovative Plastics existing system is not fulfilling all their business needs and is resulting in several problems falling into two main categories, Technical issues and People issues, listed below: Working practices out of sink Imminent increase in work-load Data accessibility/ accurateness Poor communication, a major problem for Innovative Plastics, is both poor internally, i.e. within the enterprise in England (for example), and externally, i.e. between all three enterprises in the different countries. This leads to other problems, such as an unharmonious set of working practices. This is both a technical and a people issue, as without up-to-date efficient technology, communicating abroad (such as via. E-mail) can be made virtually impossible, yet internal communication is clearly breaking down somewhere, possibly suggesting a problem with the chain of command (for example) or low-morale de-motivated untrained employees. Working practices out of sink: Working practices used by the three enterprises in England, France and Spain are working more as separate groups against each other, rather than together as one company. Therefore, these need to be harmonized so that the company can become more efficient in handling data inquiries, updates and additions, as well as becoming more...

The influence of sensory marketing on customer's behaviour Essay

The influence of sensory marketing on customer's behaviour - Essay Example Inside the shops, promotional videos and videos related to the products and environment of the firm is a concrete example in the recent evolution of visual marketing. The videos can explain how the products work and their utilities. The use of music in stores is not recent. The sound enforces the identity of a brand and aimed to be in harmony with the customers. A recent study ( Les ractions des acheteurs aux modalits de la musique d'ambiance : cas de la notorit et du style - Revue franaise du marketing, septembre 2003 ) shows that classical music has more effects than variety music and a well known song has more impact on amount of money spent and unscheduled purchase than an unknown song. It is a new step in sensory marketing which defines that a human can distinguish 4 000 different perfumes according to an article published in Marketing Magazine. It is the sense that drives the most emotional value. A young child is capable of perceiving smells before perceiving sounds, colors and textures. Several experiences have proved the decisive influence of smells on the customer's behavior. Some studies have proved that a good smell could have biased time perception of consumers and could have modified the visual or gustative perception. It directly relates to the intrinsic attributes of the products : organoleptic properties for the foodstuffs. The taste is an effective tool for differentiation. The laboratories of the companies devote important means to better including/understanding the mechanism of the taste. The stake of this research is that of information as regards quality required to the consumer. A French meat brand like Charal has imposed its meats thanks to a founded marketing step on the fact to be tender and the taste. The company thus created for itself an image of quality such as criteria of traceability and standards. Tactile marketing: The touch creates familiarity with the store or the product. A company can use for example a soft red carpet which takes part in the well-being of consumers. A comfortable ground encourages more with the dawdling. In the restaurant, the weight of the handled forks and spoons, the thickness of touched glasses, the texture of the towels, the comfort of a chair can take part largely in the pleasures of the meal. The car manufacturers make important research on the touch of the gear shift wheel and lever so that those get feelings of well being and solidity. It can be trying for a distributor to use the techniques of sensory marketing with an aim of handling the consumer. Thus the presentation of the bread in an environment of traditional bakery inside a great surface whereas this one is manufactured in an industrial way, or the diffusion of a leather odor to promote settees in leather imitation

Explain the difference between an open economy and a closed economy Essay

Explain the difference between an open economy and a closed economy - Essay Example However, opponents believe that more openness leads to loss of jobs, dumping, interdependence among nations, and economic sanctions among others.2 A closed economy on the other hand, is accused of hindering technology transfer and foreign investments although it is appropriate in ensuring protection of local industries. The paper will discuss the numerous differences between a closed and open economy as well as the advantages and disadvantages a country would have by using either of the economic models. Differences between Closed and Open Economies There are numerous distinctions between a closed and open economy. A closed economy is one in which trade is carried out within the borders of a nation or domestically hence the gross domestic product (GDP) is the same as gross national product (GNP). An open economy on the other hand, is one in which trade is carried out within and outside the borders hence the GDP and GNP are not equal but depend on volume of imports and exports.3 An ope n economy is achieved by eliminating the barriers to trade such as tariffs and import quotas. However, most open economies have put some trade barriers so as to protect crucial industries from competition in the world market or to protect consumers against harmful products and also to protect the environment from pollution.4 It can be noted therefore that there is no perfectly closed or perfectly open economy as each has an element of closeness and openness. A closed economy does not allow movement of labour across borders unlike open economy where workers are free to work anywhere in the world. Another distinction is that a closed economy does not allow movement of capital across borders hence investments are domestic in nature and foreign exchange rates do not impact on the economy unlike in an open economy where there is movement of capital across borders. Businessmen can therefore invest in foreign stocks and money markets thus the economy is affected by exchange rates.5 Accordi ng to Jane, sometimes open economies can act as closed economies.6 This is especially so if few members with open economies act as a tightly integrated economic bloc and only trade with each other thus becoming a collectively closed economy. On the other hand, a country cannot produce all the goods and services it requires hence it is forced to import some products. Open economies are characterized with large multinational corporations like starbucks with braches all over the world and this is not the case in closed economies. Advantages and Disadvantages of Closed Economy A closed economy does not have any dealings in the global market therefore is not affected by factors outside the country. For example, the global financial crisis that started in the US spread to all parts of the world due to interrelatedness of product and financial markets. The developed countries are known to impose economic sanctions on developing countries as a condition for giving them funds for development . These sanctions impact negatively on the economy but a closed economy cannot be under such sanctions since it is self reliant.7 Another advantage is the effectiveness of fiscal and monetary policy in the economy. An expansionary fiscal policy is meant to stimulate the economy during recession by raising aggregate demand. This is

Finland Case Essay Example for Free

Finland Case Essay Finland, the country of ice has been a major force in Formula 1 for the last two decades. A country with a population of about 5.3 million (0.44% of Indias population) has produced 3 F1 champions (Keke Rosberg, Mika Hakkinen, Kimi Raikkonen) and another 4 made it to F1 whereas India has had just a single entry i.e. Narain Karthikayen in all these years. Seems like automobile racing in Finland is just like cricket in India. It just runs in the veins of the Finns. The 1st Finnish driver to enter the formula1 racing scene was Leo Kinnunen. Kinnunen had a short stint in F1 which included just 6 races (1 start and 5 DNQs) and had no success in those. He raced for the team AAW Racing Team and used the Surtees TS16 car with the Cosworth V8 engine in it. The main reasons due to which Kinnunn couldnt succeed in F1 were that his car was underpowered than the other cars and also the team was not allowed to get the top quality tyres from the manufacturers. And at that point of time tyres played an immense role in the result of races in F1. During these 6 races the team faced technical difficulties in almost every race. And then due to lack of funding the team had to retire from F1 and thus also ending Leo Kinnunens carreer in F1. In all Kinnunen played a role of historic importance by being the last driver to wear the open-face helmets in F1. Next was Mikko Kozarowitzky in 1977. He had a blink and you will miss stint in F1 as he just raced a total of 2 races for RAM Racing Team with no successes. Unfortunately he broke his hand while trying to avoid an accident during practice session after which his racing team wanted him to try qualifying in the spare car with broken hand, which lead to spats between him and the team. Eventually he quit the team and retired from F1. Then came Keijo Erik Rosberg in 1978, popularly known as Keke Rosberg. He became the 1st Finnish driver to win the Formula 1 championship in 1982. Keke debuted in 1978 with the Theodore team and came in the limelight during his second race which he won under treacherous rainy conditions on the track. Rosberg was then signed by ATS in the same season but they car they provided was uncompetitive so he moved back to Theodore again. After that Keke had to move to Fittipiladi forcibly as his former team quit F1. 1981 was a lean period in which he did not score even a single point. Kekes career got a lifeline in 1982 when he was signed by Williams. He went on to win his 1st race this season and also went on to win the championship with 44 points. This was a season when no driver had won more than 1 race and the time when Ferrari were facing problems with their car. Rosberg moved to Mclaren in the 1986 season but was given an underpowered car compared to his team mate Alain Prost. He retired soon after the season from F1 as the accident of one his friend(Elio Di Angelis) deeply affected him. Mika Hakkinen joined F1 in 1991. He joined the Lotus team and scored his 1st points in his third race for the team. He joined Mclaren as a test driver 1993 with the hopes that some day he would be promoted to be their race driver. He got his chance soon enough when one of the Mclarens racers left the team. He had a nice debut in which he almost beat Ayrton Senna, his team mate. But this dream start for Mclaren was not to be as he went into the pit wall while trying too hard. He came 2nd in his second race for Mclaren. When Senna left Mclaren in 1994, Mika became their main driver and went on to race for the team till his retirement in 2001. In all these years he won 2 championships for Mclaren during the year 1998 and 1999. He won a total of 20 races in his career. The most by any Finn till date and is the most successful Finnish driver till now in F1. He could have been more succesful has Mclaren got a better car in the year of 1995 and 1996.He is currently an ambassador for the Drink Responsibly campaign by Johnny Walker. Mika Salo was racing along side while Hakkinen was racing for Mclaren. He too started with Lotus in 1994 but raced only the last race that season. But when Lotus did not return for the next season, he moved on to Tyrell for the next 3 years where he scored points some times. He then joined Arrows in 1998 but he didnt race for the team full time in 1999. Salo was selected as a subsitute driver for Schumacher in 1999 during the time when Schumi was injured. He then showed his potential in a better car. He almost won his 1st race while being at Ferrari but was asked to give way to team-mate Eddie Irvine by the Ferrari team as he had chance of winning the championship. Eddie in turn gifted the trophy to him for his gesture. Salo then raced for Sauber and Toyota and eventually quit F1 in 2002 after he was fired by toyota for not giving results. Kimi Raikkonen, popularly known as the Iceman is another great Finnish F1 driver. He started his career with Sauber in 2001. Being relatively inexperienced there were concerns whether he should be granted the super license. But Kimi won his 1st points in his very 1st race. He then moved on to Mclaren in 2002 to take the seat that was left vacant when his fellow countryman Mika retired. He went on to race for Mclaren till 2006 but he did not have much success as he faced a lot of technical failures with the team. But he did win his 1st race in 2003. And went on to be second in the drivers championships in the year 2003 and 2005. Kimi then shifted to Ferrari in 2007 to take the place of Micheal Schumacher and he also became the highest paid F1 driver in the process. He won his 1st Championship in 2007 with Ferrari and raced for them till 2009. After that his contract was not renewed by Ferrari and he has taken a break from F1 for the time being and will be racing in the World Rally championships for the Citroen team. The latest Finn in F1 is Heikki Kovalainen. He started his F1 career in the year 2004 and became the test driver for Renault. He did the testing duties till 2006 and was eventually promoted in the year 2007 to be the race driver for the team. He had a mixed start to his racing career and he finished the season at 7th place with 30 points that year with the record of finishing most number of consecutive races(16) from the start of his career. The next year as Mclaren had problems with Alonso they signed Heikki as their driver. This seemed to be a major boost to his career. In 2008 he set fire on the track as he set the fastest laps of the race at almost every track that year. But he could not convert these into victories but he had his 1st victory that year at Hungary. The year 2009 was a disappointment. The car faced a lot of problems in the starting. KERS was being deployed for the 1st time and overall he could not perform up to his potential. With Lotus F1 coming back to the F1 scene and confirming Heikki as their driver for next year a lot is expected from him. Lets see what this Finn does next year and can he become the fourth Finnish driver to win the F1 TITLE.

The Role of Fashion Promotion Within the Fashion Industry Essay

The Role of Fashion Promotion Within the Fashion Industry I am going to write about what the role of fashion promotion is within the fashion industry and discuss how it might develop in the next five years. To do this I shall review what fashion promotion is by defining it and finding out how, when and where it started. To understand what fashion promotion really is in a contemporary context I shall broadly look at how it is used and what many forms it has taken since the beginning up until the present day. To look at how fashion promotion may develop in the next five years I shall analyse and critique specific examples in more detail, such as finding out how these specific types of fashion promotions are used, by whom and for what purposes. I shall discuss the benefits and shortcomings and compare and contrast the examples to extract the implications of their usage. It is difficult to predict fashion's future but researching its history and development, identifying reasons why and how things have happened to make it what it is today, and analysing the pace at which it is developing, will help us to think about and envisage where fashion may progress in the next five years. Designers and manufacturers design and produce garments; promoters and communicators then deal with the next steps, such as: image concept or brand to either an audience or market. The Oxford English Dictionary states that fashion is "a popular trend, especially in dress" and "the production and marketing of new styles of clothing and cosmetics." It states that promotion is an "activity that supports or encourages", "the publicizing of a product or celebrity", "(promotions) the activity or business of organizing such publicity" and "elevation to a hig... ...ning what is happening today culturally, socially and economically. By applying our research, we can improve our forecasts of what may happen next in fashion promotion but there is much greater variability in the factors affecting fashion trends today, which makes prediction even more difficult. The usual measures do not necessarily suggest the next fashion styles. This allows more extreme fashion to become more main stream as fashion buyers will take greater risks to surprise the competition in the hope of establishing a new order through strong brand differentiation. Bibliography The Times. Fairtrade seeks  £50m for expansion, Sarah Butler, 24/02/07) The Oxford English Dictionary Bruzzi S. & Church Gibson P. (eds). 2000. P.96 H.Radner (2000) in S.Bruzzi & P.Church Gibson Fashion Cultures: Theories, Explorations & Analysis, London: Routledge, pp. 128-134)

Organized Marketing of Agricultural Commodities in India Essay

In India, the organised marketing of agricultural commodities has been promoted through a network of regulated markets. Most state governments and UT administrations have enacted legislations to provide for the regulation of agricultural produce markets. While by the end of 1950, there were 286 regulated markets in the country, their number as on 31 March 2006 stood at 7566. In addition, India has 21780 rural periodical markets, about 15 per cent of which function under the ambit of regulation. The advent of regulated markets has helped in mitigating the market handicaps of producers/sellers at the wholesale assembling level. But the rural periodic markets in general, and the tribal markets in particular, remained out of its developmental ambit. 11.2 Present Constraints in the System: The purpose of state regulation of agricultural markets was to protect farmers from the exploitation of intermediaries and traders and also to ensure better prices and timely payment for their produce. Over a period of time, these markets have, however, acquired the status of restrictive and monopolistic markets, providing no help in direct and free marketing, organised retailing and smooth raw material supplies to agro-industries. Exporters, processors and retail chain operators cannot procure directly from the farmers as the produce is required to be channelised through regulated markets and licensed traders. There is, in the process, an enormous increase in the cost of marketing and farmers end up getting a low price for their produce. Monopolistic practices and modalities of the state-controlled markets have prevented private investment in the sector. Post-harvest losses are estimated to be of the order of 5-7 per cent in food grains and 25-30 per cent in the case of fruits and vegetables. 11.3 Need for Reforms: The agriculture sector needs well-functioning markets to drive growth, employment and economic prosperity in rural areas of India. In order to provide dynamism and efficiency into the marketing system, large investments are required for the development of post-harvest and cold-chain infrastructure nearer to the farmers’ field. A major portion of this investment is expected from the private sector, for which an appropriate regulatory and policy environment is necessary. Also, enabling policies need to be put in place to encourage the procurement of agricultural commodities directly from farmers’ fields and to establish effective linkage between the farm production and the retail chain and food processing industries. Accordingly, the state governments were requested to suitably amend their respective APMC Acts for deregulation of the marketing system in India, to promote investment in marketing infrastructure, thereby motivating the corporate sector to undertake direct marketing and to facilitate a national integrated market. 11.4 The Department of Agriculture and Cooperation also formulated a model law on agricultural marketing for guidance and adoption by the state governments. The model legislation provides for the establishment of private markets/yards, direct purchase centres, consumer/farmers’ markets for direct sale and promotion of Public-Private Partnership (PPP) in the management and development of agricultural markets in India. Provision has also been made in the Act for constitution of State Agricultural Produce Marketing Standards Bureau for the promotion of grading, standardisation and quality certification of agricultural produce. This would facilitate pledge financing, direct purchasing, forward/future trading and exports. Several state governments have initiated steps for amending their respective APMC Acts. A table indicating the state-wise status of reforms in APMC Acts as on 31 December 2006 is given below: Sl No. Stage of Reforms 1. States/ UTs where APMC Acts have Madhya Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, been suitably amended. Sikkim, Nagaland, Andhra Pradesh, Chattisgarh, Rajasthan, Orissa, Arunachal Pradesh, Maharashtra and Chandigarh. States/ UTs where reforms to APMC Haryana, Karnataka, Gujarat and National Acts have been partially modified: Capital Territory of Delhi a) by amending APMC Act/ Resolution b) by Executive Order Uttar Pradesh. States/ UTs where there is no APMC Bihar, Kerala, Manipur, Andaman & Nicobar Act in operation Islands, Dadra & Nagar Haveli, Daman & Diu and Lakshadweep States/ UTs where APMC Act already Tamil Nadu provides for the reforms States/ UTs where administrative Assam, Mizoram, Tripura, Meghalaya, J&K, action has been initiated for Uttrakhand, Goa, West Bengal Pondicherry and introducing the reforms Jharkhand. 11.5 Terminal Markets: The Department has recently taken the initiative to promote modern terminal markets for fruits, vegetables and other perishables in important urban centres in India. These markets would provide state-of-the art infrastructure facilities for electronic auction, cold chain and logistics and operate through primary collection centres conveniently located in producing areas to allow easy access to farmers. The terminal markets are envisaged to operate on a ‘hub-and-spoke’ format, wherein the terminal market (the hub) would be linked to a number of collection centres (the spokes). 11.6 The terminal markets would be built, owned and operated by a corporate/private/co-operative entity, either by itself, or through the adoption of an outsourcing model. The enterprise could be a consortium of entrepreneurs from agribusiness, cold chain, logistics, warehousing, agri-infrastructure and/or related background. The enterprise would charge a user charge for the services provided. The total financial outlay for implementation of the above component during the Tenth Plan Period is Rs 150 crore. The proposed expenditure will be met from the budget outlay of the National Horticulture Mission. The operational guidelines of the scheme have been circulated to the state governments, which have amended their respective APMC Acts to allow the setting up of markets in the private sector. 11.7 Organisations Dealing with Marketing: The Department of Agriculture and Cooperation has three organisations dealing with marketing under its administrative control, namely, the Directorate of Marketing and Inspection (DMI), Faridabad; the Ch. Charan Singh National Institute of Agricultural Marketing (NIAM), Jaipur; and the Small Farmers Agri-Business Consortium (SFAC), New Delhi. 11.8 The DMI is an attached office of the Department and is headed by the agricultural marketing adviser. Its head office is at Faridabad (Haryana), and branch head office as well as 11 regional offices and the Central Agmark Laboratory are located at Nagpur (Maharashtra). Besides these, there are 26 sub-offices and 16 Regional Agmark Laboratories (RALs) spread all over India as per the details given in the table below: Regional Offices 1. Delhi 2. Kolkata 3. Mumbai 4. Bhopal 5. Chennai 6. Kochi 7. Hyderabad 8. Guwahati 9. Lucknow 10. Jaipur 11. Chandigarh 11.9 †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Agmark Laboratories under Regional Office 1. Dehradun 1.Okhla 2.Ghaziabad 1. Patna 2.Bhubaneshwar 3.Ranchi 1.Kolkata 2.Patna 3.Bhubaneshwar 1.Nasik 2.Ahmedabad 3.Rajkot 4.Surat 1.Mumbai 2.Rajkot 5.Panaji 6.Pune 7.Sangli 1.Raipur 1.Bhopal 1.Bangalore 2.Madurai 3.Hubli 1.Chennai 2.Bangalore 1.Calicut 2.Thiruvananthapuram 1.Kochi 1.Guntur 2.Vishakhapattanam 1.Guntur 1. Shillong 1.Guwahati 1.Kanpur 2.Varanasi 1.Kanpur 1.Jaipur 1.Jammu 2.Amritsar 3.Abohar 4.Shimla 1.Amritsar Sub-Office under Regional office The main functions of the Directorate are as follows: Rendering advice on statutory regulation, development and management of agricultural produce markets to the state governments/UT administrations; Promotion of standardisation and grading of agricultural and allied produce under the Agricultural Produce (Grading & Marking) Act, 1937; Market research, surveys and planning; Training of personnel in agricultural marketing; Marketing extension; Agricultural marketing information network; Construction of rural godowns; and Development of agricultural marketing infrastructure. 11.10 Grading and Standardisation: The Agricultural Produce (Grading and Marking) Act, 1937 empowers the central government to fix quality standards, known as ‘AGMARK’ standards, and, to prescribe terms and conditions for using the seal of AGMARK. So far, grade standards have been notified for 181 agricultural and allied commodities. The purity standards under the provision of the PFA Act and the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) Act, 1986, are invariably taken into consideration while framing the grade standards. International standards framed by Codex/International Standards Organization (ISO) are also considered so that Indian produce can compete in international markets. 11.11 During the year 2006-07, the following rules have been prepared and are in the process of being notified: (i) the Fruits and Vegetables Grading and Marking (Amendment) Rules, 2006, containing grade standards for capsicum, okra, strawberry, cherries, chillies, melons, watermelons, sapota, custard apple, cauliflower, beans, gherkins, carrots and pears; (ii) the Tapioca, Sago Grading and Marking Rules, 2006; and (iii) the Sattu Grading and Marking Rules, 2006. The grading standards of honey, cut flowers, cereals, oilseeds, tamarinds, mahua flowe rs etc., are also under preparation. Four commodities identified by the Tribal Cooperative Marketing Development Federation (TRIFED), namely, jatropha seeds, myrobalans, karanja seeds and puwad seeds have been taken up for analysis as a part of a collaboration effort between TRIFED and DMI. 11.12 As a result of special efforts initiated to promote grading under AGMARK, commodities valued at Rs 153.31 crore were graded for export purposes during the year 2005-06. During 2006-07 (up to 30 November 2006), commodities valued at Rs 65.00 crore were graded. By the end of March 2006, 192 certificate of authorization holders were operating for grading of agricultural and allied produce for exports purposes under AGMARK. During 2005-06, commodities worth Rs 4998.85 crore were graded for internal trade. During 2006-07 (up to 31 November 2006), commodities valued at Rs 2800.00 crore (estimated) were graded for internal trade. There were also 5958 authorized packers that were operating for grading agricultural commodities for internal trade. During 2005-06, a total revenue of Rs 10.01 crore was realised on account of grading charges etc. During 2006-07 (up to 31 October 2006), an amount of Rs 6.00 crore (provisional) has been realised. 11.13 Marketing Extension: AGMARK quality control programmes as well as improvements in marketing practices and procedures are given wide publicity through mass media. The information is disseminated through documentaries, cinema slides, printed literature, exhibitions, conferences, seminars and workshops. Agricultural Marketing, a quarterly bi-lingual journal, is also published regularly. 11.14 The Directorate participated in the India International Trade Fair, 2006, and will also participate in AHARA-2007. As a part of its normal activity, the Directorate through its regional/sub-offices participated in 11 exhibitions arranged by other organisations at different places during 2005-06. On the eve of World Consumers’ Day, the Directorate organised symposia and mini exhibitions on AGMARK at 14 places. One exclusive AGMARK exhibition is being organised at Ernakulam in Kerala during January 2007. Another is being organised in Haryana. 11.15 Marketing Research and Information Network (AGMARKNET): This is a central sector scheme that was launched by the Department of Agriculture and Cooperation in March 2000. The scheme aims at progressively linking important agricultural produce markets spread all over India and the State Agriculture Marketing Boards/ Directorates and the DMI for effective exchange of market information. The market information network, AGMARKNET (agmarknet.nic.in), is being implemented jointly by DMI and NIC, using NICNET facilities available throughout the country. The objective of the scheme is to facilitate collection and dissemination of information for better price realisation. The scheme provides funds to state- and national-level institutions managing the markets and executing market-led extension activities and thus, has no separate gender-specific provisions under the scheme. The portal covers market, price, infrastructure and promotion-related information for efficient marketing. 11.16 During the Tenth Plan, an outlay of Rs 35 crore has been approved for the implementation of the scheme. This includes networking of markets, development of regional portals, market-led extension activities and development of market atlas on Global Information Systems (GIS) platform, etc. During 2006-07 (31 December 2006), as against a budgetary provision of Rs 3.55 crore, an amount of Rs 1.44 crore has been released to NIC for computer connectivity for 121 nodes, and 18 crore to Madhya Pradesh and Karnataka for market-led extension activities. 11.17 The markets are reporting daily prices and arrivals data using a comprehensive national-level database at Agmarknet Portal (www.agmarknet.nic.in). Information on wholesale prices and arrivals in respect of 300-plus commodities and 2000 varieties are being disseminated through the portal on a daily basis. More than 1900 markets have been linked to the Central Agmarknet Portal and more than 1500 markets reported data during the month of November 2006. Weekly prices and arrivals trends are also being disseminated using the portal. Monthly prices and arrivals bulletins are being generated using the national database. In addition to price, other market-related information is provided through the portal. These relate to accepted standards of grades, labeling, sanitary and phyto-sanitary requirement, physical infrastructure of storage and warehousing, marketing laws, fees payable, etc. Similarly, commodity profiles are being loaded on the portal. Commodities already covered include paddy/rice, wheat, Bengal gram, black gram, red gram, mustard/ rapeseed, groundnut, soya bean and sunflower. 11.18 Further, the portal provides information about schemes of DMI, weather information, e-directory of markets, CODEX standards, etc. The portal is also constantly being enriched. Information on prices and arrivals is being disseminated in nine languages. The database developed under Agmarknet is also serving various commodity directorates of the Department of Agriculture and Cooperation by providing customised hyperlinks to data pertaining to specific commodities. An arrangement has been worked out with Indian Farmers Fertiliser Cooperative Limited (IFFCO) for regular transmission of prices and arrivals data from Agmarknet to the touch screen multimedia kiosks being installed by them at the rural cooperative societies. 11.19 Construction of Rural Godowns: The Department of Agriculture and Cooperation introduced a central sector scheme, the ‘Grameen Bhandaran Yojana’, in March 2002 to promote the construction of rural godowns. The main objectives of the scheme include the creation of a scientific storage capacity with allied facilities in rural areas to meet the requirements of farmers for storing farm produce and to prevent distress sale of produce. Initially, the scheme was approved for two years i.e., up to 2003. The scheme was later approved for implementation up to 31 March 2007 with some modifications. Under the revised scheme, a subsidy at the rate of 25 per cent was given to all categories of farmers, agriculture graduates, cooperatives and the Central Warehousing Corporation/State Warehousing Corporations (CWC/ SWCs). All other categories of individuals companies and corporations are entitled to a subsidy at the rate of 15 per cent of the project cost. In North-Eastern states/ hilly areas and SC/ST entrepreneurs and their cooperatives, subsidy is provided at the rate of 33.33 per cent. 11.20 A total of 90-lakh tonnes capacity of rural godowns was targeted during the Tenth Plan period. However, the target has now been revised upwards to 140 lakh tonnes as the target of 90 lakh tonnes was achieved during 2004-05 itself. Till 31 December 2006, 13030 storage projects having a capacity of 180.88 lakh tonnes have been sanctioned under the scheme. . 11.21 Development/Strengthening of Agricultural Marketing Infrastructure, Grading and Standardisation: The scheme for the development/strengthening of agricultural marketing infrastructure, grading and standardisation was launched on 20 October 2004. Under this scheme, a credit-linked investment subsidy is being provided on the capital cost of general or commodity-specific marketing infrastructure for agricultural commodities and for strengthening and modernisation of existing agricultural wholesale markets, and rural or periodic markets in tribal areas. The scheme covers all agricultural and allied sectors including dairy, po ultry, fishery, livestock and minor forest produce. The scheme is reform linked and is being implemented in those states/UTs that permit the setting up of agricultural markets in the private and cooperative sector and allow direct marketing and contract farming. 11.22 A sum of Rs 67.00 crore has been allocated for implementation of the scheme during 2006-07, of which an amount of Rs 25.00 crore has been provided to NABARD during the current year up to 30 November 2006. During this year, Bihar, Chhatisgarh, Arunachal Pradesh, Orissa, Maharashtra and the UTs of Chandigarh and Lakshadweep were notified for implementation of the scheme. These are in addition to the states of Madhya Pradesh, Kerala, Manipur, Tamil Nadu, Sikkim, Nagaland, Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan, and the UTs of Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Daman and Diu and Dadra and Nagar Haveli which were notified in the previous year. There were 22 training and awareness programmes that were conducted. The operational guidelines of the scheme have been modified to permit the state agencies to take up projects from their own funds without availing credit from the financial institutions. The condition of altitude of location of the project has been relaxed and all projects in the states of Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir are now eligible for a higher subsidy of 33.33 per cent. An amount of Rs 9.74 crore has been released by the NABARD as subsidy for 703 projects in the states of Punjab, Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, Rajasthan and Himachal Pradesh during 2006-07 (up to 30 November 2006). Since inception and till 30 November 2006, 881 projects have been sanctioned and a subsidy of Rs 13.82 crore released to the beneficiaries. 11.23 NIAM: Set up in August 1988, NIAM has been imparting training to senior and middle-level executives of agricultural and horticultural departments, agro industries, corporations, state marketing boards, agricultural produce market committees and apexlevel cooperatives, commodity boards, export houses recognized by the Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development Agency (APEDA), CBs and NGOs. Besides these clients, the NIAM also imparts training to farmers on marketing management. 11.24 NIAM is managed by a governing body under the chairmanship of the union minister of agriculture and an executive committee under the chairmanship of the secretary, Department of Agriculture and Cooperation. 11.25 Training Activities: The Institute organised 18 training programmes, workshops, awareness programmes and management development programmes during 2006-07, up to 31 October 2006. 11.26 Management Development Programmes (MDPs): This initiative was started in the year 2003-04. Four MDPs have been successfully organised during 2006-07 for leading companies like Bayer Crop Science, MICO BOSCH etc., for the benefit of executives of these companies working in various capacities. The participants rated all these MDPs as excellent programmes and many other companies have shown keen interest in organising such events by NIAM. 11.27 Project Formulation: In order to generate resources and ensure optimum utilisation of the expertise of the NIAM faculty, the Institute has taken up several consultancy projects in the year 2006-07. NIAM has completed infrastructural development project of fruits and vegetables cold store, grading line, ripening chamber etc., for the Haryana State Agricultural Marketing Board (HSAMB) at Shahabad, Sirsa, Rohtak, Karnal and Jhajjar. The Institute has also undertaken project formulation for the following, which are in progress: (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) Setting up a Special Export Zone (SEZ) for mushrooms at Sonipat for the HSAMB; Modernisation of agricultural markets in Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Orissa; Modern terminal markets for Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu and Orissa; and Controlled atmospheric storage for apples at Kolkata for the State Government of Jammu and Kashmir. 11.28 Education: The Institute introduced a postgraduate programme in agri-business management as a sub-centre of MANAGE, Hyderabad with effect from July 2001, and 50 students (26 students in the first year and 24 in the second year) are presently enrolled. The programme is designed to assist agricultural graduates to acquire the critical knowhow to compete in the domestic and global business arena to make them efficient agri– business managers. 11.29 The SFAC was registered by the Department of Agriculture and Cooperation as a Society under the Societies Registration Act, 1860, on 18 January 1994. It is managed by a board of management consisting of 20 members and chaired by the union minister of agriculture as its ex-officio president, and the secretary to the Government of India in the Department of Agriculture and Cooperation as its ex-officio vice president. The managing director is the chief executive of the SFAC. It has established 18 state-level SFACs by contributing a corpus fund. The mission of the Society is to support innovative ideas for generating income and employment in rural areas by promoting private investments in agri-business projects. 11.30 The central sector scheme for agri-business development is being implemented by SFAC in close association with CBs for (a) providing venture capital assistance to agribusiness projects; and (b) assisting farmer/producer groups in preparation of quality Detailed Project Reports (DPRs). The scheme envisages providing venture capital assistance to 85 agri-business projects, and assist farmers/producer groups in preparation of 100 DPRs during the Tenth Plan period. An amount of Rs 38.00 crore has been allocated for the implementation of this scheme during 2006-07. For its effective implementation, the SFAC has already signed an MOU with 15 CBs including the Oriental Bank of Commerce, United Commercial Bank, Bank of Baroda, Punjab National Bank, Central Bank of India, Allahabad Bank, Canara Bank, Vijaya Bank, The Jammu & Kashmir Bank Ltd, Bank of Maharashtra, United Bank of India, Syndicate Bank, State Bank of India, State Bank of Bikaner & Jaipur and Indian Bank. 11.31 Under the scheme, the SFAC during 2006-07 (up to 31 January 2007) has sanctioned venture capital assistance to 27 agri-business projects with varied agribusiness activities involving Rs 6.88 crore. Since the inception of the scheme, 71 agribusiness projects have been sanctioned involving venture capital assistance of Rs 18.21 crore. These projects are expected to mobilise private investments of Rs 194 crore, which will provide an assured market to 36000 farmers for their produce, and create direct employment for 6200 persons. 11.32 Programmes being implemented in North-Eastern States: The details of the programmes being implemented in the North-Eastern region are indicated in Annexure – 11.1

Physical Condition Of Nepal Essay

Nepal is an independent democratic nation. The country is bordering between two big countries like China and India. It is developing country where the socio-economic status of the people is very low. The economic growth of the country has not improved substantially. According to the CBS, 2001. The total population is Nepal 23151423 where (11-587502) 50.06 percent are female and (11563921) 49.94 percent are male. It. means that women constitutes more than half of the population in Nepal. GEOGRAPHICAL MAP OF NEPAL In the national development, women play vital role, male dominated country females are considered low standard and of less value. Literacy rate differs vastly. 42.5 percent women are literate and where 65.1 percent men are literate. According to the CBS report, 2001. But in recent years people have started realizing the importance of women role and participation in the economy as well as social and developmental activities. So without women participation development goals can not be fully attained. Therefore we can say that men and F women are two pillars of the development. In recent world scenario, women have been actively participating in the political and social aspect. The voice of equality for men and women was raised first in the western countries, after the analytical revolution the women of these countries demanded equal rights for them. NATIONAL FLAG OF NEPAL Nepal is a multi language, multi culture, multi religion, and multi parti system country. There are many language and many culture but they believe in every language and culture each other. Tourism is about the movement of people. Tourists are the outside who travel away from their usual environment. They are from different countries, culture, tradition and  interest. Therefore, every tourist brings his own culture with him/her and there is a meeting of more than two cultures in tourism. Since, tourism is the hospitality or service industry, we are expected to behave as per liking, interest and style of the tourists. NEPALESE CULTURE Culture is tourism’s main attraction. Without culture, every place would be seen ironically the same. Without different culture heritage, the places around the world would have little to offer that could attract the purpose of tourism. The cultures of different countries can vary greatly to attract people from a particular country, which is important to know cultural differences. The choices of interest of determined by the age, sex, culture and nationality such as children are interested to play and enjoy, young generations like to be informal and take part in adventure activities where older generations are more disciplined, formal and enjoy cultural tours. An isolated, agrarian society until the mid-20th century, Nepal entered the modern era in 1951 without schools, hospitals, roads, telecommunications, electric power, industry, or civil service. The country has, however, made progress toward sustainable economic growth since the 1950s and is committed to a program of economic liberalization. Nepal has used a series of five-year plans in an attempt to make progress in economic development. It completed its ninth economic development plan in 2002; its currency has been made convertible, and 17 state enterprises have been privatized. Foreign aid accounts for more than half of the development budget. Government priorities over the years have been the development of transportation and communication facilities, agriculture, and industry. Since 1975, improved government administration and rural development efforts have been emphasized. Agriculture remains Nepal’s principal economic activity, employing 80% of the population and providi ng 37% of GDP. Only about 20% of the total area is cultivable; another 33% is forested; most of the rest is mountainous. Rice  and wheat are the main food crops. The lowland Terai region produces an agricultural surplus, part of which supplies the food-deficient hill areas. Economic development in social services and infrastructure has not made dramatic progress due to GDP dependency on India. A countrywide primary education system is under development, and Tribhuvan University has several campuses. Please see Education in Nepal for further details. Although eradication efforts continue, malaria had been controlled in the fertile but previously uninhabitable Terai region in the south. Kathmandu is linked to India and nearby hill regions by road and an expanding highway network. The capital was almost out of fuel and transport of supplies caused by a crippling general strike in southern Nepal on February 17, 2008.[2] Major towns are connected to the capital by telephone and domestic air services. The export-oriented carpet and garment industries have grown rapidly in recent years and together now account for approximately 70% of merchandise exports. Nepal was ranked 54th worst of 81 ranked countries (those with GHI > 5.0) on the Global Hunger Index in 2011, between Cambodia and Togo. Nepal’s current score of 19.9 is better than in 2010 (20.0) and much improved than its score of 27.5 in 1990.[3] Currency 1 Nepalese Rupee (NPR) = 100 paisa Fiscal year 16 July – 15 July Trade organizations WTO Statistics GDP $35.81 billion (2010 est.) GDP growth 4.6% (2010 est.) GDP per capita $1,200 (2010 est.) GDP by sector agriculture (40%), industry (20%), services (40%) (2002 est.) Inflation (CPI) 8.6% (September 2010 est.), 10.6% (October 2011 est. source: myrepublica.com) Population below poverty line 24.7% (2008 est.) Main industries Tourism, garment, food and beverages, metal manufactures, herbs. Ease of Doing Business Rank 107th[1] External Exports $849 million (2009) f.o.b.; note – does not include unrecorded border trade with India (2008) Export goods carpets, clothing, leather goods, jute goods, grain, herbs, tea Main export partners European Union 42.5%, United States 8%, Bangladesh 6.04%, Germany 5% (2009) Imports $5.26 billion f.o.b. (2008) Import goods Petroleum Products, Gold, Machinery Main import partners India 57%, China 13% (2009) Public finances Revenues $3 billion (FY 2010) Expenses $4.6 billion (FY 2010) The Nepali government has decided to bring timely changes to the country’s coat of arms and bring it into force on Dec. 30, the National News Agency RSS reported on Monday. According to the RSS, the new coat of arms is based on the people’s supremacy, the distinguished identity of the nation, national unity and self-pride. It was developed jointly by artists Nabindra Man Rajbhandari, Himayala Gautam and Krishna Shrestha. Approved by the meeting of the Council of Ministers held on Dec. 14, the coat of arms is made up of the national flag, the symbol of nationality; the world’s highest peak, Mt. Qomolangma; green hills symbolizing the hilly region; woman and man joining hands with one another to symbolize gender equality; yellow  color symbolizing the fertile terai region; a garland of national flower laligurans or rhododendron; paddy ears on the top and a red ribbon with the letters in white reading â€Å"mother and motherland are greater than heaven† in the bottom. Nepal is a secular state under the Interim Constitution, which was promulgated on January 15, 2007. The Interim Constitution provides for freedom to practice one’s religion. The Interim Constitution also specifically denies the right to convert another person. The now-defunct constitution of 1990, which was in effect until January 15, 2007, described the country as a â€Å"Hindu Kingdom,† although it did not establish Hinduism as the state religion. The Government generally did not interfere with the practice of other religious groups, and religious tolerance was broadly observed; however, there were some restrictions. The Government took positive preliminary steps with respect to religious freedom during the period covered by this report, and government policy contributed to the generally free practice of religion. The Interim Parliament, through the Interim Constitution, officially declared the country a secular state in January 2007; however, no laws specifically affecting freedom of religion were changed. Nonetheless, many believed that the declaration made it eas ier to practice their religion freely. However, members of minority religious groups occasionally reported police harassment. Authorities limited the location of and otherwise restricted many public celebrations by the Tibetan community, especially those with political overtones. Adherents of the country’s many religious groups generally coexisted peacefully and respected places of worship, although there were reports of societal abuses and discrimination based on religious belief or practice. Those who converted to another religious group at times faced violence and occasionally were ostracized socially but generally did not fear to admit their affiliations in public. Nepal is moving forward to become the newest republic of the world. After more than 200-years-long Monarchy, Nepal is finally becoming the country ruled by the general people instead of the kings and queens. Nepal has always faced political turmoil. This beautiful country, located in Himalayas in Asia, has very unstable political condition. The recent changes that have shaken Kathmandu with powerful voices, the commitment of leaders toward democracy and public right gives a hope that Nepal is finally moving toward democracy after the 200 years of bureaucracy and political turmoil.  The April revolution of 2006 changed the face of Nepal. It was able to end the decade-long guerilla warfare of Maoist and was successful to bring them into peace into this war-torn country. The Maoist was regarded as one of the big parties and was also offered good proportion of seats on the parliament. The parliament which was formed after the revolution deducted much of the power of the king and took away his authority and power over the military and the administration. An interim administration said he must pay taxes, placed the army under civilian control and removed his image from the 500-rupee note, replacing it with Mount Everest. The main purpose of the Maoist insurgents was to overthrow the Monarchy system from Nepal which has been deeply rooted in Nepalese society both culturally and politically making the political view of Mao Tse-tung, the communist leader of china, the communist party, Maoist, came to main political frame and the parliament after the revolution of 2006. On the Constituent Assembly elections conducted on April 10th, Maoist emerged as the biggest party of Nepal securing 220 seats of parliament while the biggest parties of Nepal, Nepali Congress only won 110 seats which shocked the entire nation as well as the whole world. With overwhelming support and che ers, the first sitting of the constituent Assembly collectively declared the country a Republic late on Wednesday night making Nepal the World’s newest republic and making the king a general, ordinary citizen. In the context of implementing a Republic in the country, the CA meeting directs the then king residing at the Narayanhiti palace and the private secretariat structure ordering him to leave within 15 days. A new Government will soon be formed and Nepal will be having its first president ever and as Maoist have won the election it is for sure that the first president of Nepal will be a Communist leader who is supposed to be the chairman of Maoist party of Nepal known as Prachanda. Nepal will have to face many hurdles even though Nepal has revived itself as a Republic country but people still have fear in their hearts about the condtion that will grow when Maoist will have their government and they fear how things are going to be on the coming days. But for the moment, much of Nepal enjoys and cheers for becoming the worlds new-born Republic country. Pokhara is a remarkable place for natural beauty at an altitude of 827 m above mean sea level & 200 km west of Kathmandu. This city is ever known  as a real paradise in Earth. The Valley is filled with swift flowing river and dotted with clear gleaming lakes. It is blessed with the back drop is the most dramatic sceneries in world. A 140km of panoramic Himalayan ranges seem close enough to be touched. But also can be felt. The magnificence of the Himalayas rising behind the lake create an ambience of peace & magic, popular for water rafting, Kayaking and trekking expeditions following the unification of Nepal in 1769. It took a shape of permanent bazaar (small town). Newar migrants from Kathmandu Valley established business and introduced new architecture design of the city. It grew as a catering place to caravan traders with limited infrastructure facilities located at the break of bulk point along the trans-Himalayan trade routes. Pokhara is a very beautiful natural place. It is rich in natural beauty, it is lies in western develop region of Nepal. Pokhara is a very famous city in Nepal. Many foreigner visit Pokhara to see it natural beauty. Pokhara is develop city. There we can get all facility The highest peak of the world Mount Everest is situated in Solukhunmbu District of Sagarmatha Zone. It is known by the name Sagarmatha in Nepal. It is located 27 ° 59†² North latitude, 86  ° 55†² East longitudes. The official height of this peak is 8848 meters. The temperature lies below 0 °c at the summit. Mount Everest was named after Sir George Everest who discovered this peak for the first time. It is very difficult to climb up this mountain because oxygen contained in air becomes lesser as the height increases then it will be difficult to breathe so the climbers take oxygen along with them. Carrying oxygen only also is not enough to climb this peak. You need the special practice that is Acclimatization. In this process a person goes to certain height and come down again so his/her body get used to the reduced oxygen content of the air. It is necessary for the safety climbing. Climbers acclimatize by ascending slowly; resting one day for every 1,000 feet they clim b in one day. On May 29, 1953, Tenzing Norgay Sherpa of Nepal & Edmund Percival Hillary of New Zealand climbed to the summit of Everest for the first time while the first woman to climb it is Junko Tabei of Japan. She succeeded her trip on 16 May, 1975. Chitwan District is one of the seventy-five Districts og Nepal, a landlocked country of South Asia. The district is in the western part of Narayani Zone with Bharatpur, the seventh  largest city of Nepal, as its district headquarters. It covers an area of 2,218 km ² and in 2001 had a population of 472,048 people. Bharatpur is a commercial and service centre of central south Nepal and merger destination for higher education, health care and transportation of the region. The district takes its name from the Chitwan Valley, one of Nepal’s Inner Terai valleys between the Mahabharat and Siwalik ranges, both considered foothills of the Himalayas. Narayanghat, on the bank of Narayani River, is the main town with numerous shopping zones where pe ople come from all over the district and neighbouring districts.

Bismarck - How much did Bismar essays

Bismarck - How much did Bismar essays Bismarck - How much did Bismarck's success from 1862-70 depend on the errors and misjudgements of others? According to the traditional German view, German unification was achieved in 1871 as a result of the actions of one great man, Otto von Bismarck, the Minister-President of Prussia, who planned the events leading to unification in detail. However, more recent historians have argued that Bismarck had no such ``master plan''. Instead, Bismarck's success was a result of his flexibility as a statesman, combined with the advantages Prussia enjoyed both in its resources and its diplomatic situation, the latter of which was improved by the mistakes and misjudgements of others. There were essentially two halves to Bismarck's supposed master plan: defeat Austria, keeping her as an ally by treating her leniently, and defeat France. Defeating Austria required the neutrality of France and Russia, and a way in which to trick Austria into declaring war with Prussia, so that Austria would appear to be to blame. According to the traditional view, Bismarck planned ways in which to carry this out. Originally it was said that Bismarck's handling of the rebellion in Russian Poland resulted in Russian neutrality: the rebellion was a potential threat to Russia, so Bismarck offered the Tsar military help, thereby gaining Russia's friendship. However, this was not entirely the case, and Bismarck almost ruined the good diplomatic position he had inherited: There was almost a French, British and Austrian alliance of liberal opposition against Prussia over the matter, and Russia resented Prussian interference. In the end, Russia's friendship with Prussia remained intact, and the Prussian benefit was that Austria's relations with Russia had worsened over Austrian opposition to Russia's Polish policy. Furthermore, this could not have been part of a master plan since Bismarck had no way of knowing about the rebellion in advance. It is more likely that...

How to Write a 10-Page Term Paper

How to Write a 10-Page Term Paper How to Write a 10-Page Term Paper How to Write a 10-Page Term PaperWhen being assigned to write a 10-page term paper, most students give way to despair for the workload they have to accomplish seems to be incredibly extensive. This is true, it is difficult to write a 10-page term paper well, still, it is possible, and in this article we will tell you how to do it. If you are writing, for example, 15 page term paper or long term paper 10 pages, you need to devote enough time to planning your time. Alternatively, you may simply order custom term paper writing service at our site and get at least 250 words a page term paper written from scratch!The first thing you should keep in mind when getting started to write your 10-page term paper is that an elaborative plan of actions will make your writing process much easier. That is why we strongly recommend you start your work with making a schedule. Find out when your deadline is and calculate the number of days at your disposal. Your writing process will include the fol lowing steps:Choosing a topic;Gathering material;Taking notes and organizing ideas;Writing;Editing.Some useful tips on how to write a 10-page term paper also seem to be right in time for you. So, here they are:How to write a 10-page term paper: Researching materialWhen dealing with sources, use reviews. They usually present additional information, references, and leads. This is a good path for you to understand the primary sources better and analyze them deeper in your paper. Still, you should go beyond this, since a paper based only on secondary sources is regarded as weak. How to write a 10-page term paper: Writing techniques and styleUsually, term papers are required to be written in an academic language. So, no colloquial speech words like slang or jargons are accepted. Imagine yourself to be a fully-fledged researcher. How would you present your research in the paper?How to write a 10-page term paper: Making an introductionWe advise you make only some notes on your introduction and come back to it after you finish to write your 10-page term paper. Usually, this part includes the purposes of research, the writers expectations from it, and the research question he/she is going to answer in the paper.How to write a 10-page term paper: Working out the main bodyThis part consists of several smaller ones where you discuss the works by other researchers devoted to your research question. In data presentation part, tell what approaches to the question exist. In analysis, explain what the data presented might mean, how it can be interpreted.How to write a 10-page term paper: Drawing a conclusionIn this part, tell what you have come up to after completing the research. What conclusions have you withdrawn? If you want to write a 10-page term paper or term paper 15 pages successfully and get a high grade, do your best to meet all the requirements your professor set.

Innate and Adaptive Immunity Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Innate and Adaptive Immunity - Assignment Example   IgG antibodies appear after a longer period and then remain in the bloodstream permanently, providing protection against re-infection (New Jersey Department of Health, 2011). In view of this, quarantine should be imposed on the patient if the IgM antibodies are present. This would mean that this is a case of the first infection. Otherwise, the patient should not be quarantined. IgG antibodies can be present in blood because of vaccination (Lab Tests Online, 2012). Question 2 A secondary infection occurs when a pathogen attacks an organism whose immune system is weak due to an earlier infection. Secondary responses result from the stimulation of B cells. The clonal expansion theory has three key areas: specificity, memory, and tolerance. Specificity comes about since the production of antigen-specific antibody is in response to triggering of antigen-reactive clones. Memory is because subsequent responses to an antigen are stronger than the initial one. Tolerance is because of the destruction of self-reactive B and T cells. When an antigen with multiple epitopes gains enters the body, different clones of B cells recognize and produce antibodies against the different epitopes. The pathogens have antigens on their surface. Antibody response to protein antigen actively involves T cells and B cells. Since CD4 T lymphocytes stimulate B cells, they are known as helper T cells. Cytotoxic T cells kill other cells that virus-infected, allografts or cancer cells. Helper T cells secrete cytokines. Cytokines provide amplification mechanism by proliferation and differentiation (stimulation of B cell clonal expansion). They also determine the type of antibodies produced (Sridhar, 2012). Question 3 Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) attacks a protein, CD4, on helper T cells of the immune system and associated with it. These cells are the immune system’s main infection-fighting cells. T helper cells are necessary for the activation of B-cells and cytotoxic T-cell immu ne responses. During this time, the body cannot make antibodies properly. Destruction of infected cells cannot occur without helper T-cells. Production of antibodies occurs in an effort to fight the virus. An HIV blood test is one that detects HIV antibodies. The body produces antibodies in response to HIV antigen. Therefore, in as much as the virus is destroying the helper T cells, the body continues to produce antibodies to fight the virus. These are the antibodies detected in an HIV antibody test. A negative result on a blood test means that either the person is not infected or that one is infected, but production of antibodies has not occurred. This is because, after the initial infection, it takes time for the body to produce antibodies. Seroconversion is the process of conversion from antibody negative to antibody positive blood (Melbourne Sexual Health Centre, 2007). Question 4 Innate immunity exists prior to antigenic exposure while adaptive immunity develops in response to antigen exposure. For adaptive immunity, resistance develops with repeated exposure to antigen, but for innate immunity, repeated exposure has no effect on resistance. Innate immunity is not specific to any antigen. The adaptive response, on the other hand, is antigenic specific. This means the ability to respond in a quickly during re-exposure to a pathogen (University of Arizona, 2008).